Stone knives were used by Déné Chipewyan until replaced by steel knives in the 18th Century. Their Taltheilei ancestors and their predecessors, the ASTt, Shield Archaic and Northern Plano traditions, used a variety of knives, some culturally distinct, but most were similar. Except for elegant finely retouched and colourful ceremonial ones, knives were tools-of-the-moment; quickly made and sharpened as needed, and easily discarded, as seen in abundant fragments. Mainly butchering tools for caribou, they were used on other game, fish, birds, plus sundry other tasks. Hundreds of surface knives were culturally assigned using 1272 stratified knives in eight sites: KjNb-5, 6 & 7 and KkLn-2 & 4 in the tundra, and KdLw-1 and KeNi-4 & 5 in the forest. 91% of all are quartzite, 5.5% chert, 0.3% quartz, 2.5% silicious shale, 0.2% sandstone, 0.2% basalt and 0.4% mudstone. Knives have a tip and midsection with retouched cutting edge that may be worn with use, and a supporting base that may be ground to fit a haft. They are uni- or bifacially retouched or rarely, fully ground. Uni- and bifacial ones are retouched on one or both faces, while three knives (ET) are ground. Knives vary from elongated to round. Some retain their striking platforms, mainly at their base, but most are retouched away for haft socket insertion. Use wear from slotting, scraping and cutting may occur on one or both edges. One cannot assume round ends are bases, as some knives have sharp round tips. Alternatively, some bases are pointed; e.g., tanged for haft insertion.
By number and culture, from earliest to latest, knives include 26 NP (7 unif. & 19 bif.), 130 SA (22 unif. & 108 bif.), 127 ASTt (21 unif. & 106 bif.) and 216 ET (36 unif., 177 bif. & 3 ground), 608 MT (107 unif. & 501 bif.) & 190 LT (36 unif. & 154 bif.) and one Chipewyan (KeNi-4C:-1-4). 14 stratified shouldered knives comprise two each of ASTt, ET and LT, plus 8 MT, with no Chipewyan, NP or SA ones. Both ASTt knives are bifacial chert with uni-shouldered ground tang and worn tip. A unifacial ET knife has an unworn round tip and long ground tapered alternately retouched tang. 7 of the 8 MT specimens are bifacial quartzite with uni-shouldered tapered base or bi-shouldered and tanged. Both LT knives are bifacial with big uni-shoulders, and serrated with tapered bases. Cultural distinctions are limited: ASTt or MT uni-shouldered or alternately retouched tang, and LT crude uni-shouldered tapered midsections, big ET serrated semi-lunar plan and MT cortex backed unifaces. Moderate basal grinding, alike in forest and tundra ratios, is in >85% in all cultures except ASTt (74%), while heavy grinding is rare. Very worn bits are higher on tundra. SA knives are often thick and long, with some side-notched like its points. ASTt knife plans vary considerably, mainly roundish, rectangular and semilunar, with some resembling sideblades. Most knives of all cultures are broken after striking rock or bone, and quickly discarded. Fragments were first classed as uni- or bifacial, then to knife portion on shape. Ground vs. worn; bifacial vs. unifacial, and sharp vs. worn/ground edges were tabled at breaks; i.e., if retouch continues unchanged from tip to break, and if a reasonable amount of base remains, the base is likely retouched. If retouch ends before the break, the base was assumed to be unretouched. Some traits (e.g., MT stemmed bases) permitted culturally assignment to some surface knives.
Multi-purpose tundra knives from earliest to latest are KkLn-4 wedges 183-4a (SA) & 780-2a (MT) and graver KkLn-2:83 (NP); awls KjNb-7:30-47 (MT) & KjNb-6:36-2 (LT); spokeshave KjNb-6:20-3 (MT); scrapers (KkLn-2:159-1 & 280-1 – both NP; KjNb-3:3-306 & KjNb-7:22-13 – both ASTt; KjNb-7:10-3, 12-17 & 14-39 & KkLn-4:682-2 (all MT). Forest scraper-knives are IiOd-2:12 (ASTt), KeNi-4A:3-76 (MT), IjOg-2:50 (LT) & IiOd-2-3 (LT). 2 tundra MT pushplane-knives are KjNb-7:10-3 & 7:39-27. Knife-artpieces are KlNb-1:1 (ASTt) & KkLn-4:780-2a (MT). MT choppers are KjNb-6:40-32, KjNb-7:6-7 & KkLn-4:722-2a; while LT choppers are KjNb-7:1-9 & 16-3. Odd knives with are KbNb-8:28 (ASTt with 2 microblade scars), 2 waxy KjNb-7 knives: 38-21b (MT) & 38-11 (LT). Heat-treated knives are KjNb-6:27-4 & 5-4 (SA), and 45-25 (MT). 3 parrot-beaked knives are KjNb-3:3-30, 3-114a & 3-189 (ASTt). Tundra SA knives with ribbon or parallel-flaking are KjNb-7:42-5 & 42-9; ASTt retouched sideblade KjNb-3:4-20, KjNb-6:30-2 & KjNb-7:12-81, 11-74, 18-45 and 44-3 & 8; and KkNb-3:52, KkNb-21:6, KlNa-1:39 & KlNa-2:1. Forest ASTt ribbon-flaking is on KbNa-17:24, 19:19 and 21:16 & 25, KeNj-2:8, KgLo-1:22 & KbNb-3:3, plus KbNg-4:37. A very heavily ground base is KeNi-4C:4-11, while heavily worn knives include KjNb-7:23-25 (tip) & 10-8 (MT) & KkNb-6:17 (MT). A heavily retouched knife is LT KkLn-4:926-1b, while an odd thick knife is KjNb-6:40-32 (MT). One patinated knife is KdNi-5 of European type flint. Notable hinge-fractured knives are KkLn-2:133-1 (NP) & LbLs-1:3 (ASTt). Channel-flaking is on KjNb-7:24-13 (SA), KeNi-6:15 (ASTt), KjNb-7:33-79b (ASTt) and MT KjNb-6:43-3 & KjNb-7:8-35. 22 burnt knives are KjNb-7:39-36 (SA); plus MT KjNb-5:1, 2, 3, 13, 16, 18-20, 23-26; 2-2 & 4; and MT KjNb-7:12-20 & 120, 19-49, 29, 30-126 & 139, 33-7 & 10 and 39-36. Long narrow tanged bases include KjNb-7:10-37 (ASTt), 7 MT bifaces: KbNa-20:1; KjNb-6:29-2, 44-7 & 63-4 and KjNb-7:34-15; and KkNa-2:35 & LbLs-2:13; and LT KkNa-4:40 & LbLs-3:6. Shouldered biface knives are KjNb-4:56, KkLn-4:35 & KkNb-10:61; and 17 bi-shouldered: SA KkLn-4:167-4a & 298-4a; ASTt KcNb-25:2 & KeNi-4C:4-166; ET KeNi-4C:4-6 and KjNb-7:18-36 & 19-140; and MT KbNa-16:56, 64 & 189, KjNb-6:63-4, KjNb-7:15-16, KkNa-2:18, KkNa-5:5 & 16 and KkNb-3:116 & 842. Ground side-notched knives are both ASTt – KjNb-3:3-15 & 3-29. One striated knife is KkLn-4:614-2b, a fully bifacially ground ET knife with striae parallel to the edge.
For comparison, an attribute key was contructed as follows, with culturally important traits and variables for analysis:
Faciality: 0=unknown; 1=unifacial; 2=bifacial.
Fullness: 0=unknown; 1=base only; 2=midsection; 3=tip only; 4=1 & 2; 5=2 & 3; 6=edge fragment unidentifiable to tip, midsection or base. If large and lacks tip or base parts it may be a midsection; 7=complete; 8=1, 2 & 3, but longitudinally split; 9=like 8, but chipped.
Plan: 0=unknown; 1=lanceolate; 2=ovoid; 3*=semi-lunar; 4=rectangular/square/parallelogram; 5=tearshape/triangular; 6=pentagonal; 7=left-leaning; 8*=amorphous/asymmetric like sideblades except left-leaning, semilunar & asymmetrically ovoid; 9=discoid; 10=unishouldered; 11*=bishouldered; 12=notched; 13=spadelike, including side-notched; 14=sinuous like SA; 15=bipointed like some sideblades; 16=bladelike; 17=rhomboid (*semi-lunar means straighter edge opposite a rounder edge than a sideblade).
Section: 0=unknown; 1=biconvex; 2=planoconvex; 3=parallel-sided/tabular; 4=concavoconvex; 5=triangular/keeled; 6=tortoise#; 7=sinuous*; 8=1 & channel-flaked; 9=2 & channel-flaked; 10=tabular & channel-flaked; 11=4 & channel-flaked. (#tortoise resembles convex but more domelike and finely retouched).
Edgetype of midsection or tip: 0=unknown; 1=unworn serrations, as in many preforms some few finished knives (see note on serrations in 9); 2=bifacial retouch & unworn; 3=unifacial retouch & unworn; 4=bifacial retouch & worn; 5=unifacial retouch & worn; 6=ground & worn only; 7=worn flake edge; 8=serrated & worn; 9=alternately retouched & unworn (in side view alt. ret. is more pronounced in its sinuousity than serrated, which may actually be flat. Preforms, especially big ones, may have pronounced sinuous alt. ret.); 10=alternately retouched & worn, 11=completely bifacially ground.
Base: 0=unknown; 1=unground & unretouched, as in common flakes; 2=ground & unretouched, as in fully ground bases; 3=unground & dorsally retouched; 4=unground & ventrally retouched; 5=unground & bifacially retouched; 6=unground, with edges alternately retouched (i.e., a ventral and dorsal edge unifacially retouched; 7=ground & dorsally retouched; 8=ground & ventrally retouched; 9=ground & bifacially retouched; 10=ground, with edges alternately retouched (i.e., a ventral & a dorsal edge unifacially retouched; 11=bifacially thinned & unground through hinge-fractured bladelike flake removal; 12=full cortex base.
Midsection: 0=unknown; 1=unifacial; 2=bifacial; 3=alternately retouched edges; 4=serrated.
Tip: 0=unknown; 1=unworn & pointed; 2=worn & round; 3=worn & pointed; 4=unworn & round; 5=serrated; 6=square.
Break: 0=unknown; 1=transverse break; 2=diagonal break; 3=transverse & diagonal breaks; 4=longitudinal break; 5=semi-transverse break; 6=transverse breaks; 7=longitudinal & transverse breaks; 8=diagonal breaks; 9=diagonal & longitudinal breaks; 10=slightly chipped with full measurements except weight; 11=knife made from sharpening flake; 12=halved transversely; 13=halved diagonally; 14=halved or split longitudinally; 15=halved or split in thickness. Where breaks are specific (e.g.s, transverse or diagonal), their assignments take precedence.
Striae: 0=unknown; 1=absent; 2=unifacial striae parallel to edge; 3=unifacial striae perpendicular to edge; 4=bifacial striae parallel to edge; 5=bifacial striae perpendicular to edge; 6=bifacial striae perpendicular & transverse to edge.
Cortex: 0=unknown; 1=most of dorsal face; 2=most of edge; 3=tip face; 4=midsection face; 5=basal face; 6=midsection edge; 7=basal edge; 8=striking platform area only; 9=both ends, but absent on midsection.
Baseplan: 0=unknown; 1=tapered, round & ground; 2=tapered, flat & ground; 3=tapered, round & unground; 4=tapered, flat & unground; 5=tapered; no basal edge; 6=round & ground; 7=round & unground; 8=pointed & ground; 9=pointed & unground; 10=concave & ground; 11=concave & unground; 12=square & ground; 13=square & unground (includes unretouched crude flake ends, with or without cortex that have an approximately square plan; 14=side-notched & ground; 15=side-notched & unground; 16=corner-notched & ground; 17=corner-notched & unground; 18=tanged & ground; 19=tanged & unground; 20=serrated; 21=fish-tailed; 22=cortex base.
Back: 0=unknown; 1=same as edge opposite; 2=cortex blunt back; 3=intentionally blunted back.
Striking platform: 0=unknown; 1=ground unfacetted; 2=ground with ≥1 facets; 3=unground unfacetted like cortex spalls; 4=unground with ≥1 facets; 5=raised lateral; 6=unraised lateral; 7=retouched or bashed away; 8=raised base; 9=prepared arcuate ground striking platform with ≥1 facets; 10=prepared arcuate unground striking platform with ≥1 facets.
Oddthick: 0=regular thickness or undetermined; 1=odd thick section compared to knife length & width – common in preforms & choppers.